Vol. 77 (2009)

Integrating lidar and geophysical surveys at Falerii Novi and Falerii Veteres (Viterbo) (pp. 1–27 and 335–43)

Rachel Opitz

The Roman town of Falerii Novi and the pre-Roman Falerii Veteres are revisited through a combination of lidar (airborne laser scanning) and geophysical survey data in this paper. The lidar survey provides detailed information on the topographically complex edges of these sites for the first time, and a number of new features are identified. Viewing these features in the context of both the topographic and geophysical data, these peripheral urban areas are explored, both as zones for movement and as façades. Through these examples, the potential contributions made by lidar to our overall understanding of pre-Roman and Roman urbanism are considered.

Lixus (Morocco): from a Mauretanian sanctuary to an Augustan palace (pp. 29–64)

Carmen Aranegui and Ricardo Mar

This article reassesses the work of M. Ponsich, published in 1981, on the monumental centre of Lixus (Morocco). He interpreted the structures found in the excavations begun by Tarradell in 1948 as a set of linked sanctuaries, principally of the Roman period. This new examination of the preserved remains, together with more recent excavations, allows us to reassess this area of the site. It is possible to identify the remains of a large sanctuary of the Mauretanian period (fourth–first centuries bce), which includes temples, gardens and storehouses. In the period of Juba II (30–10 bce) a palace was constructed over the gardens, adjacent to the earlier temples. This residential complex had a Corinthian atrium and two peristyles. It has been possible to identify also the oecus triclinaris, cryptoporticus, exedrae and halls. We propose that this palace is one of the residences of Juba II.

Revisiting the pediment of the Palatine metroön: a Vergilian interpretation (pp. 65–99)

Roslynne Bell

In this article the pediment of the Magna Mater’s Augustan temple on the Palatine is re-examined. Arguments in favour of reference to the sellisternium, and traditional identifications of the composition’s main figures as either Attis or galli, are considered. An alternative reading of the pediment is proposed. Using the pine branch as a key, Vergil’s Aeneid is put forward as an iconographic ‘blueprint’ for a scene in which the Magna Mater is celebrated as both a national goddess of Rome and the tutelary deity of Augustus and the Julio-Claudii. The figures in question are re-identified as personifications of the Trojan Mount Ida and the Palatine Hill — important loci of worship in the east and the west, and symbols of the dual heritage shared by the Magna Mater, Rome and the princeps himself.

A baker’s funerary relief from Rome (pp. 101–23)

Andrew Wilson and Katia Schörle

This article presents a previously unpublished Roman travertine relief showing scenes of breadmaking, currently in the restaurant Romolo in Trastevere in Rome. It presumably came originally from a tomb monument, possibly in the vicinity, and might be dated on grounds of material and style anywhere between the very late Republic and the Flavian period. From left to right it shows two men delivering sacks of grain, a man loading grain into an animal-driven mill, three men kneading dough by hand, three more shaping loaves, and one putting loaves into the oven. The article discusses parallels in other reliefs of bakery scenes, and highlights the importance of this one for the evidence that it provides for the extent of the division of labour in a fairly large-scale bakery, in which the breadmaking process is divided into stages, each carried out by different groups of people.

Trajanic building projects on base-metal denominations and audience targeting (pp. 125–58)

Annalisa Marzano

Imperial coinage is generally recognized as one of the media used by the central administration to spread specific ideological messages, even though the extent to which specific messages could be understood across the wide spectrum of Roman society remains open to debate. Even more problematic is the question of whether specific coin types were chosen according to the different denominations (precious versus base metal), thus taking into account the social and geographical background of the potential coin-users. This study investigates the possibility of audience targeting in Trajanic coins with architectural types of the mint of Rome and then compares these issues with similar coins minted under the Flavians and Hadrian. The analysis highlights how building projects that had primary relevance for Rome’s populace, such as the restoration of the Circus Maximus, were commemorated on base metal alone, whereas projects that had a wider resonance across the empire, as in the case of the Forum of Trajan, were depicted on precious and base metal, thus showing that in specific cases a clear pattern of audience targeting can be detected.

Excavations at Le Mura di Santo Stefano, Anguillara Sabazia (pp. 159–223)

Robert Van de Noort and David Whitehouse

This report presents the results of excavations undertaken between 1977 and 1981 at the remarkable ruins known as Le Mura di Santo Stefano, situated near Anguillara Sabazia, just under 3 km south of Lake Bracciano. The earliest phase of occupation concerned a first-century ad farm. Around ad 200 a range of buildings was constructed, including a three-storey rectangular building lavishly decorated with nineteen types of marble, suggesting that the complex was a luxury retreat, possibly part of a latifundium. There is evidence for further activity in the third or early fourth century. In the ninth century, after a period of abandonment, part of the complex was converted into the church of Santo Stefano. The rectangular building was reoccupied and the remaining ruins used as a cemetery. It is argued that the site may have functioned as the centre of a medieval estate, part of a papal domusculta, or alternatively as a fundus of a monastic establishment. In the eleventh century the site was deserted after the skeletal remains of a least 90 individuals, along with the bones of three dogs, were interred in a pit and capped with several pieces of Roman marble sculpture.

Medieval wall painting in the church of Santa Maria in Pallara, Rome: the use of objective dating criteria (pp. 225–55 and 344)

Laura Marchiori

The medieval wall paintings in Santa Maria in Pallara have received little scholarly attention, perhaps on account of uncertainty about their dating; there is no independent textual documentation for their production. Traditionally dated to the tenth century, the paintings exhibit an iconography more common to twelfth- and thirteenth-century contexts, a representation of the Apostles seated on the shoulders of Prophets, which no doubt contributes to their neglect, since the later monuments are so well documented. However, the iconography derives from Roman traditions of church decoration, traditions that may be utilized in an analysis of the paintings in order to arrive at an independent dating based on their form and content alone. Following a methodology developed by John Osborne for dating undocumented medieval wall paintings in Rome, this article analyzes the objective dating criteria of the Santa Maria in Pallara paintings; namely, these criteria are physical setting, function, subject matter, inscriptions and pictorial technique. Such analyses suggest that a tenth-century date is suitable for the paintings, which are well categorized in the history of Roman pictorial technique between securely dated ninth-century monuments and those dated to the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Governor and government in sixteenth-century Rome (pp. 257–72)

Miles Pattenden

The quantity of government in Rome and the role of the pope and his officials in it increased rapidly during the sixteenth century. This article takes the figure of the city’s Governor as a case study and, using legislative, archival and financial records, asks how we can measure that process and what it reveals about the aspirations of Romans for government. It concludes that this expansion was not the result of deliberate centralization or rationalization by sixteenth-century popes, but that different groups within Roman society exploited the idea of papal authority to advance their own interests and encourage political stability. Finally, it considers the consequences this had for the development of Rome as a polity and argues that in the centuries before the French revolution, far from being a cause of stagnation and decline, papal government continued to evolve to meet the expectations made of it by the ancien régime society.

The Villa Pigneto Sacchetti excavation: a new interpretation (pp. 273–90)

Phil Perkins and Sally Schafer

The remains of the seventeenth-century Villa Pigneto Sacchetti lie in Rome to the northwest of the Vatican City, on a steep slope in the Valle dell’Inferno in the regional park of Monte Mario. Designed for the Sacchetti family by Pietro da Cortona, it was one of a limited number of his architectural projects to be built. In 1990 the villa was believed lost, and so a project was devised to locate and explore the material remains; and in 1992 we partially excavated the villa and subsequently published an excavation report (published in Papers of the British School at Rome 68 (2000)). In 2008, Jörg Martin Merz’s much-awaited monograph, Pietro da Cortona and Roman Baroque Architecture, was published. Without any doubt, this book makes a major contribution to the architectural literature of the Roman Baroque. It includes a chapter on the Villa Pigneto Sacchetti, which takes issue with some of our findings. This article addresses several points raised about our work, and offers a reinterpretation of the building history of the villa that aims to reconcile the divergent opinions and incorporate advances in scholarship since 2000.

Notes from Rome (pp. 291–7)

Robert Coates-Stephens

This gazette aims to present to a readership outside Rome a newsletter of recent archaeological activity (chiefly for 2008, although also early 2009) gleaned from public lectures, conferences, exhibitions and newspaper reports.

Vol. 76 (2008)

The Mycenaeans in Italy: a minimalist position (pp. 1–34)
Emma Blake
The past five decades have seen a sharp increase in the numbers of sites yielding sherds of Mycenaean pottery in Italy. The heightened presence attributed to the Mycenaeans has encouraged the theory that they triggered the social developments experienced in Italy at the end of the Bronze Age. Focusing on the ceramic evidence, this paper takes a minimalist position, contending that relations between Mycenaeans and the peoples of Italy were infrequent, small-scale, and had, at most, a circumscribed impact in limited areas. Moreover, there is marked variability in the distribution of Mycenaean pots in Italy, both regionally and over time, with no clear consistency in Mycenaean and Italic actions and responses. The evidence suggests that the Mycenaeans did not profit greatly from the visits, so they came infrequently. In addition, the Mycenaeans did not have the capacity to do more than trade goods with Italy, and so had little influence on other sectors of life.

Cleopatra in Pompeii? (pp. 35–46, 345–8)
Susan Walker
Early in 2007, while reviewing the context of the two cameo glass plaques found in the large oecus (room 62) of the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus in the Insula Occidentalis at Pompeii, I had the opportunity to examine a wall-painting of considerable interest. In this paper the painting is described and set within the context of the development of the house. With regard to its subject, I suggest that the principal figure does not represent the goddess Venus herself, but Cleopatra VII of Egypt as Venus Genetrix. The painting most likely was inspired by the dedication in September 46 bc of Caesar’s temple to Venus Genetrix in his forum at Rome, where, according to Appian and (more problematically) Dio Cassius, Caesar dedicated a gilded statue of the Egyptian queen.

Investigations at Falacrinae, the birthplace of Vespasian (pp. 47–73)
Filippo Coarelli, Stephen Kay and Helen Patterson
Since 2005, the British School at Rome, together with the Università di Perugia and the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici del Lazio, has been undertaking a systematic study of the territory of Cittareale, which lies in the Apennine mountains to the northeast of Rieti on the Via Salaria, on the border of the regions of Lazio, Umbria and the Marche. The project is part of a wider series of events programmed for 2009 to mark the bimillenary of the birth of Vespasian, and is focused primarily upon locating and excavating the vicus of Falacrinae, where Suetonius reported that the emperor was born. The project firstly undertook a field-walking programme, and subsequently investigated a number of sites through geophysical survey, leading to excavation. This paper presents the results of the geophysical surveys and compares them with the subsequent findings of the excavations.

La domus dei Valerii sul Celio alla luce delle recenti scoperte (pp. 75–98, 349–54)
Mariarosaria Barbera, Sergio Palladino and Claudia Paterna
L'articolo dà notizia della scoperta di un settore abitativo della domus dei Valerii, famiglia di antichissima origine, che si diceva discendente dal primo console Valerio Publicola. L’intervento di scavo, svolto nel 2005, ha riguardato il sottosuolo dell’Ospedale dell’Addolorata dove, ai primi del Novecento, la realizzazione del padiglione sudorientale distrusse gli strati più superficiali e tutta una complessa linea di strutture lungo il lato settentrionale, verso via Santo Stefano Rotondo. Fin dalla metà del ’500, ricerche e scavi incontrollati avevano recuperato e spesso venduto o comunque disperso un notevole patrimonio di conoscenze e di materiali di pregio. Lo scavo ha restituito una parte di un grande corridoio affrescato, largo m 3.80 ed alto originariamente circa 3 m, pavimentato in mosaico nero e aperto con finestre su un giardino. Di quest’imponente strutturazione, databile all’età tardo-adrianea, sono state individuate le fasi edilizie, di abbandono e di riutilizzo, tra cui risulta particolarmente interessante la costruzione di un bidental.

Mura di Roma dalla Porta Latina all’Appia (pp. 99–154)
Lucos Cozza
Roma. Il tratto di Mura Aureliane da Porta Latina a Porta Appia comprende dodici torri connesse da cortine con camminamenti coperti. Lo stato attuale della costruzione viene descritto in maniera dettagliata. Le fasi dell’edificio (dal 275 dc ad oggi) sono distinte attraverso l’analisi delle tecniche di costruzione, disegni d’archivio e fotografie di sezioni scomparse, insegne papali e iscrizioni (a matita o graffiti) che documentano eventi più recenti. Nel momento in cui l’altezza dell’intero circuito fu raddoppiata durante la fase onoriana (401–3 dc), i piani delle torri furono innalzati a un livello marcatamente più alto di quello dei camminamenti, in modo da sfruttare appieno il tipo di armi d’assedio (balistae) collocate nei vani superiori delle torri. Le feritoie, progettate per essere usate da arcieri, rivelano una storia lunga e complessa: modificate durante la costruzione, furono successivamente murate per impedire traffici illegali di merci (e il mancato pagamento di dazi), e furono infine riaperte e modificate ancora una volta per difendere la Roma papale. Viene effettuato quindi un esame critico dei restauri moderni del 1930–67. La necessità di un restauro immediato e di una consistente manutenzione, che garantiscano l’integrità strutturale della costruzione, è oggi evidente. Ci si augura che venga presto realizzato un collegamento diretto (e aperto al pubblico) con il Museo delle Mura, inaugurato nella vicina Porta Appia nel 1970.

Saint Peter’s, Leo the Great and the leprosy of Constantine (pp. 155–72)
Paolo Liverani
It is possible to re-date to the age of Constantine two mosaics on the triumphal arch and in the apse of the Vatican basilica of Saint Peter’s, on the basis of a reinterpretation of their inscriptions. On the façade of the church we can also reconstruct the apocalyptic subject-matter of a third important mosaic and attribute it to the period of Pope Leo the Great (440–61). Some sylloges of the seventh century inform us about the presence in it of the image of Constantine, with a long inscription alluding to his miraculous recovery from leprosy and to his baptism. This text escaped the discussion about the origin of the Actus Silvestri, but it is of great importance, since it is the first document clearly attesting this legend. Furthermore, it has significant links with Pope Leo the Great — in the context of the debate about the primacy of the Bishop of Rome — and probably with the family of Constantine itself. In fact, the mosaic was paid for by Flavius Avitus Marinianus, praetorian prefect in 422 and consul a year later, and his wife Anastasia, who was probably a great-great-granddaughter of the Emperor Constantine.

The Jerusalem Temple treasure and the church of Santi Cosma e Damiano in Rome (pp. 173–81, 355)
John Osborne
Scholars have long puzzled over why an apsed hall and its adjacent vestibule, belonging to Vespasian’s Forum of Peace, should have been chosen as the site for the first Christian church in the Roman forum, Santi Cosma e Damiano, a project of Pope Felix IV (526–30). This paper will suggest that one factor in the decision may have been the earlier presence here of the treasures from the Temple in Jerusalem, taken from Rome by the Vandals in 455. This history may explain the addition of the golden candlesticks to the mosaic decoration of the triumphal arch, which otherwise follows the iconography of San Paolo fuori le mura, as well as the unusual wording of the dedication inscription.

A portrait of Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, rival and imitator of the papal Caesars (pp. 183–99, 356)
Piers Baker Bates
In the Galleria Colonna at Rome there is a little-considered portrait of one of the most significant, and himself little-considered, figures for the history of the first 25 years of the sixteenth century at Rome, Cardinal Pompeo Colonna. The aims of this article are twofold: firstly, to identify the actual artist of that portrait, previously attributed to Lorenzo Lotto but here identified as Sebastiano del Piombo; and, secondly, to restore to the figure of Cardinal Pompeo in some degree his importance at this critical juncture in the history of the papacy and of Rome. The argument of the article will then broaden to encompass the networks that would have brought patron and artist into contact, and demonstrate how these particular networks — here referred to as ‘imperial’ — offer a novel way of binding together Sebastiano’s career at Rome.

Dosso’s early artistic reputation and the origins of landscape painting (pp. 201–31, 357–60)
Robert Colby
In their respective biographical accounts of Dosso Dossi (1487?–1542), Paolo Giovio and Giorgio Vasari fashioned the Ferrarese court artist with a reputation for painting landscape well. This paper will examine these early critical responses in the light of each author’s historiographical programme, while considering Dosso’s approaches to landscape painting as they evolved over the course of his career. Dosso’s paintings have long been viewed as early examples of ‘independent landscape’, a construct that must be examined afresh in order to understand fully the purpose, context and significance of Dosso’s unusual paintings of landscape scenes.

‘Adelchi’ and ‘Attila’: the barbarians and the Risorgimento (pp. 233–55)
Ian Wood
During the Risorgimento frequent reference was made to the medieval past in order to elucidate present conditions. Various events in the Middle Ages were referred to, but particular use was made of the barbarian migrations, and especially the Hunnic and Lombard invasions. The interpretations offered of these events were inspired by ideas already developed in France and Germany. The present paper looks at the largely French historiography that lay behind Manzoni’s treatment of the Lombards in his tragedy Adelchi (and in the accompanying Discorso, which he wrote to explain his interpretation), and at the very different German and Swiss works of literature that underlie Verdi’s treatment of the Huns in his Attila.

A neglected sculpture: the monument to Catherine of Siena at Castel Sant’Angelo (pp. 257–76)
Gerald Parsons
Despite its impressive scale and complex iconographic scheme — which includes not only a statue but also an entire sequence of sculpted scenes, emblems and inscriptions — the monument to Saint Catherine of Siena located next to Castel Sant’Angelo has received surprisingly little scholarly attention. The present article seeks to address this lacuna by presenting a detailed analysis of the monument that explores its imagery, its symbolism and both its religious and political contexts. In so doing, the article argues that the monument stands, not only chronologically but also in an ideological sense, at a mid-point between three distinctive interpretations of Catherine of Siena and her perceived political significance in twentieth-century Italy. The article also suggests an explanation for the neglect of the monument in scholarship hitherto, relating this to the specific circumstances and context of the monument’s inauguration in April 1962.

The words of the migrant: tales of contemporary Italy (pp. 277–97)
David Forgacs
The article gives a brief overview of the research project ‘Language, space and power in Italy since 1800’ that I am carrying out at the British School at Rome from 2006 to 2009, and gives examples taken from one of the already completed case studies. Overall, these case studies examine intertwinings of language, space and power in a number of institutions and agencies (including the army, law courts and psychiatric hospitals), and in ethnographic and anthropological research. The case illustrated here is that of recent migration to Italy, and in particular the verbalizations of power relations between hosts and migrants, and the verbal and visual representations of migrants. Its two examples are events that took place at the detention camp of Regina Pacis in Puglia and representations of Romanian migrants to Rome, including young women working as prostitutes.

Notes from Rome (pp. 299–307)
Robert Coates-Stephens
This gazette aims to present to a readership outside Rome a newsletter of recent archaeological activity (chiefly for 2007, although also early 2008) gleaned from public lectures, conferences, exhibitions and newspaper reports.

Vol. 75 (2007)

The bronze and iron age finds from Il Pizzo (Nepi, VT): the results of the intensive survey 2000 (pp. 1–37)
Ulla Rajala
This article presents the prehistoric finds recovered during the survey at Il Pizzo (Nepi, VT) in March 2000, as part of the Nepi survey, within the overall context of the Tiber Valley Project. The intensive survey of the site incorporated traditional mapping, survey with a total station, total surface collection along a longitudinal transect on the promontory and additional collection on the slopes. One hundred and sixty-one sherds of prehistoric pottery were identified; 31 could be dated precisely. Most of these originate from the Final Bronze Age. Two fragments are clearly from the Middle Bronze Age and seven or eight could be dated to the Iron Age. No recent bronze age material was identified firmly. The bronze age material is functionally consistent with domestic activities, whereas the possible iron age material is suggestive of a funerary context. The chronological data suggest that the area was the focus of continuous settlement from the Middle to the Final Bronze Age, with a probable hiatus in the Recent Bronze Age and further exploitation in the Iron Age, possibly associated with the disposal of the dead.

An archaeological survey of the Faliscan settlement at Vignale, Falerii Veteres (province of Viterbo) (pp. 39–121)
Claudia Carlucci, Maria Anna De Lucia Brolli, Simon Keay, Martin Millett and Kristian Strutt
This paper presents the results of a geophysical survey undertaken at Vignale in 2001–2 as part of the Roman Towns in the Middle and Lower Tiber Valley Project. The site forms a key part of the topographically complex settlement of Falerii Veteres (modern Civita Castellana) in the province of Viterbo. It had a long and complex cultural sequence that extended between the end of the Bronze Age and the high medieval period, although its main period of occupation was the Iron Age. The characteristics of this particular site necessitated a detailed topographic survey, coupled with the use of magnetometry and resistivity, as well as a programme of geochemical sampling. The results of these studies shed new light on the spatial organization of the Vignale plateau. Furthermore, they were integrated with the records of work carried out at Vignale by Raniero Mengarelli between 1895 and January 1896. This evidence, together with a review of the terracottas found at the site, suggests that Vignale was one of several major Faliscan sanctuaries at Falerii Veteres, and that it developed between the fifth and third centuries BC.

Excavations in the Roman cemetery at Vagnari, in the territory of Gravina in Puglia, 2002 (pp. 123–229)
edited by Alastair Small and Carola Small, with contributions by Richard Abdy, Alessandra De Stefano, Roberta Giuliani, Martin Henig, Kathryn Johnson, Philip Kenrick, Tracy Prowse, Alastair Small and Hans vanderLeest
Excavation of the cemetery of the Roman village at Vagnari in Apulia began in 2002 and is still continuing. This article is the definitive publication of seventeen inhumation burials mostly excavated in the first year, which range in date from the late first to the fourth centuries AD. In part I Alastair Small discusses the grave types, burial practices, use of grave-goods, and funerary rituals, and he draws comparisons with other cemeteries in Roman Italy. In part II Prowse analyses the skeletal remains in terms of age, sex and pathology. Part III is the descriptive catalogue of burials and grave-goods, with specialist reports on pottery by Kenrick, glass by Giuliani, lamps by De Stefano, coins by Abdy, and an amulet by Henig. In Part IV De Stefano discusses the provenance of the lamps and their distribution in Italy, and particularly in Apulia. The Roman village at Vagnari was the economic centre of an imperial estate, and the excavation of the cemetery is part of an on-going programme of study of the village and its environs.

Where was the Porta Romanula? (pp. 231–7)
T.P. Wiseman
In the course of his article ‘The Scalae (ex-Graecae) above the Nova Via’, Papers of the British School at Rome 74 (2006), 237–91, Henry Hurst drew attention to ‘a presumed robbed masonry structure set in a cut into bedrock’, which he cautiously suggested ‘might have originated as part of the Porta Romanula within the ‘Romulean’ Palatine fortifications’ (pp. 241, 243). The suggestion is based on the ‘consensus’ that the Porta Romanula referred to by Varro was at ‘the northwest corner of the Palatine in the vicinity of the present site’ (p. 274). What Varro actually said is that the Porta Romanula was near two sites in the Velabrum, somehow linked to ‘the exit into the noua uia’, and that the Velabrum had once been a landing-stage for ferries from the Aventine. The supposed consensus implies that Varro’s Aventine ferries came to a landing-stage near the Temple of Vesta, which is highly unlikely. The present article argues (a) that the Velabrum was a specific toponym on the street from the Forum to the Circus Maximus (the site of San Giorgio in Velabro), (b) that the narrative of Otho’s route from the Temple of Apollo to the milliarium aureum in AD 69 offers no support to the ‘consensus’ theory, and therefore (c) that there is no reason to suppose that Hurst’s robbed-out feature had anything to do with the Porta Romanula.

Pirro Ligorio, Cassiano dal Pozzo and the Republic of Letters (pp. 239–74)
Susan Russell
Pirro Ligorio (c. 1512/13–83), painter, architect and antiquarian, left an enormous corpus of drawings, commentaries and reconstructions of ancient Rome that was subsequently plundered indiscriminately or dismissed as either fantasy or fraud. This article considers his reputation in seventeenth-century Rome, when material from his manuscripts was eagerly sought by the scholarly members of the so-called Republic of Letters, which included Lorenzo Pignoria (1571–1631), Girolamo Aleandro (1574–1629), Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc (1580–1637), Giovanni Battista Doni (1594–1647), Jose Maria Suarès (1599–1677), Lucas Holste (1596–1661) and Claude Menestrier (Ménétrier, d. 1639). The antiquarian collector Cassiano dal Pozzo (1588–1657), a member of Cardinal Francesco Barberini’s household in Rome, emerges as a central figure amongst this network of scholars, and it is argued that his role in gathering information obtained from Ligorio’s manuscripts was seminal, especially in obtaining copies of parts of Ligorio’s manuscripts then held in the Farnese collection in Rome. How this material was used and disseminated is also considered through the activities and publications of the erudite circle connected to Dal Pozzo.

French policy in Italy and the Jesuits, 1607-38 (pp. 275–86)
A.D. Wright
Early in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-48) hostilities affected the Italian peninsula, even though the conflict had begun in Bohemia and the German lands. These extensions of warfare owed much to French intervention in the peninsula, even before France openly entered the main War (1635). Such preliminary intervention already threatened to disrupt Catholic solidarity, for which it was criticized not only in Italy but among some ultra-Catholics in France itself, who opposed the foreign policy of Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister of Louis XIII. Recent scholarship has shown convincingly that the presence, during the War, at various Catholic courts, of royal confessors drawn from the Society of Jesus did not result in any common policy adopted by the Catholic states that became involved in the War. Further research in the Jesuits’ central archives in Rome, drawn on here, reveals how complex and ambiguous were the interests of the Society, where French policy affected Italian affairs.

Vol. 74 (2006)

Poenus plane est — but who were the ‘Punickes’? (pp. 1–37)
Jonathan R.W. Prag
The term ‘Punic’ (or equivalents), derived from the Latin ‘Poenus’, is commonplace. However, its usage is frequently unclear and/or inconsistent. This article has two principal aims: firstly, to clarify the application of the term ‘Punic’, both in ancient and modern usage, together with cognate and associated terms; and, secondly, to demonstrate that, in the surviving evidence, the term ‘Poenus’ was not used in the period before the first century ad as a self-ascribed label of identity. A key part of this demonstration is the examination of the epigraphic evidence for identity ascription in the ancient Mediterranean. It is argued that such evidence is generally under-used in comparison to the literary evidence for identity in the classical world. The usage of ‘Poenus’ is almost wholly literary; as such it is strongly associated with a number of (generally negative) stereotypes. This renders the term problematic in usage as a cultural descriptor in the modern literature.

An archaeological survey of Capena (La Civitucola, provincia di Roma) (pp.73–118)
Simon Keay, Martin Millett and Kristian Strutt
This article presents the results of the geophysical and topographical survey undertaken at Capena, which forms part of the ‘Roman Towns in the Middle and Lower Tiber Valley Project’. The results build upon earlier work, and provide new information about the layout and development of the site between c. the eighth century bc and the late antique period. The geophysics revealed that the ancient settlement was structured around a road system that followed the ridge of La Civitucola, with branch roads opening off it. They also suggest that in the archaic period the site probably occupied some 3 ha, expanding to c. 8.7 ha under the Republic and then contracting to c. 6 ha in the Imperial period. Ancient structures appear at the western end of the site, around the standing structure of Il Castellaccio, where they are possibly related to the forum of the town, and at a much lower level at the eastern end of the site. Overall the results suggest that while Capena may have been a relatively small town when compared to centres like Falerii Novi, it was probably still quite densely occupied and played an important regional administrative role.

Black-gloss wares from the acropolis of Capena (La Civitucola, provincia di Roma) (pp.119–62)
Roman Ernst Roth
This article publishes the black-gloss wares recovered in a series of excavations conducted at La Civitucola by the Gruppo Archeologico Romanoduring the early 1990s. The material (c. 500 diagnostic fragments) covers a period of over 200 years, from the early fourth to the late second centuries bc, with a distinct peak during the central decades of the latter. This applies to both imported and exported black-gloss wares, which, rather than overlapping in their morphological details, tend to occur in fabric-specific shapes. Of particular interest in this regard is the principal, locally-produced fabric (Fabric I). This unites traditional Capena styles with elements commonly found in black-gloss wares elsewhere in central Italy, but without copying the style of the principal type of imported ware (Fabric V). The article concludes with the suggestion that these patterns, comparable to situations elsewhere in central Italy, be studied within the context of increasing cultural diversification at the regional level within the wider, historical framework of the Romanization of Italy.

Cisterns, drainage and lavatories in Pompeian houses, Casa dei Capitelli Colorati (VII.4.51), Casa della Caccia Antica (VII.4.48), Casa dei Capitelli Figurati (VII.4.57) (pp. 163–201)
Frank Sear
This article examines the four water cisterns, the lavatory, the water basins and parts of the piped water system of Casa dei Capitelli Colorati (VII.4.51); the large water cistern, the pool and the two lavatories in Casa della Caccia Antica (VII.4.48); and the water cistern under the atrium of Casa dei Capitelli Figurati (VII.4.57). It follows an earlier article (Papers of the British School at Rome 72 (2004): 125–66) dealing with the water system of Casa del Granduca (VII.4.56).

Potentia: an integrated survey of a Roman colony on the Adriatic coast (pp. 203–36)
Frank Vermeulen, Sophie Hay and Geert Verhoeven
The research presented here integrates the results of intensive archaeological field survey in the urban area of the Roman colonial city of Potentia (Marche region). Recently various non-destructive survey methods were deployed here, such as oblique aerial photography, geophysical survey, geomorphological survey and intensive field walking. The results of previous excavation work, the study of ancient sources and of the artefacts found are integrated in a new approach to the urbanization of this Adriatic colony. A completely new and much more detailed plan of the urban pattern of Potentia is presented here, comprising the full street network and town defences, the forum, several monumental complexes and many elements of city housing and funerary structures. This work is part of the Potenza Valley Survey, which aims at a new understanding of the Romanization and urbanization of the central Adriatic region of Italy.

The Scalae (ex-Graecae) above the Nova Via(pp. 237-91)
Henry Hurst
The study, initiated by the Soprintendenza alle Antichità di Roma, provides a detailed survey of the wall elevations and surface plan of the stepped surface leading from the Nova Via up to the so-called Clivus Victoriae at the northwestern corner of the Palatine Hill. This surface was first exposed in the 1880s and was seen by Lanciani as part of a route from the Temple of Vesta to the site of the Porta Romanula; more recently this has been identified with the Scalae Graecae of ancient texts. The present stepped surface dates from Hadrianic times and gave access to rooms to its east, including a probable water-mill fed by water from a drain of the Domus Tiberiana. Almost certainly it did not provide a link to the upper part of the Palatine Hill. Earlier Imperial remains, probably going back to the Augustan period, were also revealed, together with a substantial probable robbed structure at the Nova Via level, which might be a relic of the Porta Romanula.

Recent investigations of Trajan’s Column (pp. 293–322) (in Italian)
Matthias Bruno and Fulvia Bianchi
Whilst some maintenance work was being undertaken in the area of Trajan’s Column, the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma, and specifically the architect Giangiacomo Martines, asked the authors to undertake new drawings and analysis of the excavations done by Giacomo Boni in 1906 along the northwestern side of the base of the column. The aim of this was to document the situation almost 100 years after the excavation had been carried out. This new work has allowed the identification of the possible construction sequence of the column, which right from the start seems to have been an integral part of the courtyard of the libraries, thus dismissing the hypothesis that the concrete foundations of the courtyard of the libraries were cut for the insertion of the foundations of the column. In addition, it is possible to reconstruct the way in which the travertine blocks of the solea were moved and installed, through an analysis of the holes of various types present in the travertine blocks, which to date have not been studied, even given the clear absence of holes intended for the insertion of the olivella. 

Citizenship and community in southern Italy, c. 1100–c. 1220 (pp. 323–38)
Paul Oldfield
This paper explores the use of the word ‘citizen’ (civis) in the charter material of southern Italy from the late eleventh to the early thirteenth centuries. The study focuses on a sample of eight cities, these being used as case-studies to discover what citizenship may have implied in the medieval Mezzogiorno. The findings suggest that there was an emerging use of the word civis, and as such a growing awareness of the notion of citizenship. These developments can be explained by a number of factors, primarily concerning wider transitions in urban life, civic identity and government. However, it is apparent that the concept of citizenship, as it appears in the documentary material, remained a highly flexible one during this period, full of ambiguities. This conclusion on citizenship fits with the amorphous social ordering of medieval urban communities.

The goldsmith Pietro Spagna (1561–1627): ‘argentiere’ to Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini (1571–1621) (pp.339–70)
Xavier F. Salomon
Previously unpublished documents from the Archivio Aldobrandini at Frascati and the Archivio Doria Pamphilj in Rome allow us to explore the artistic production of the goldsmith Pietro Spagna (1561–1627). This article summarizes what is known about Spagna and discusses for the first time his relationship with Pope Clement VIII’s nephew, Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini (1571–1621), and with other members of the Aldobrandini family. As no works by Spagna have been identified so far, charting his activity allows us to understand the remarkable range of objects produced by one of the most accomplished goldsmiths in Rome in the early 1600s and by his workshop on the Via del Pellegrino.

Vol. 73 (2005)

PITS AND FORA: A REPLY TO HENRIK MOURITSEN (pp. 23–30)
Filippo Coarelli
This article is a reply to the article by Henrik Mouritsen (Papers of the British School at Rome 72 (2004), 37–67), in which he challenged the interpretation of the ‘small pits’ or ‘post-holes’ (pozzetti) discovered in the fora of the Latin colonies (proposed by the present author and by Mario Torelli) as markers for the edges of sacred areas, following the model of the Forum in Rome. Even though on occasions the function of such features varied (as in the case of the forum at Fregellae), the hypothesis that links the larger pozzetti to the inauguratio of forum areas still seems the most probable.

A COMPARISON OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN ETRURIA ON THE BASIS OF BLACK-GLAZED POTTERY  (pp. 31–84) (in Italian)
Helga Di Giuseppe
This article compares northern and southern Etruria on the basis of the ‘behaviour’ of black-glazed pottery, the principal guide for the Republican period and one of the main indicators of the Roman conquest and of the integration of the peoples of ancient Italy. This study is based upon the black-glazed pottery from the excavation of the Roman theatre at Volterra, near Vallebuona, and from the South Etruria Survey, undertaken in the 1950s and ‘60s by John Ward-Perkins and his team. Even though the samples were recovered by different methods —excavation and survey —, they can be compared fruitfully, as both have produced a large amount of residual material (c. 11,000 sherds, and specifically 3,972 from Volterra and 6,985 from the South Etruria Survey) that is sufficiently significant from a statistical and chronological point of view, covering the whole period of the production and use of this type of pottery (fourth–first centuries bc). The article includes an introduction in which the aims of the study are outlined, a discussion of the various approaches that can be taken in the study of black-glazed pottery, the analysis of the material from Volterra, the analysis of the material from South Etruria, and, finally, a discussion and comparison of the two areas. The main method of analysis is a quantitative approach, which takes into consideration the chronology, the production centres and the forms in the two areas. Through analysis of periods of growth and decline in the pottery, the aim is to understand not only the history of its production, but also the wider historical context behind the different results obtained in the two areas of Etruria.

P. FAIANIUS PLEBEIUS, FORUM NOVUM AND TACITUS (pp. 85–98)
Filippo Coarelli
An inscription from Forum Novum (CIL IX 4786) mentions the munificent activity of one P. Faianius Plebeius, an eminent local dignitary and magistrate of the municipium in the early Empire. His activity relates exclusively to works involved with water (an aqueduct, fountains), primarily undertaken at Faianius’s expense, using water from sources on his own land. The course of the aqueduct, which can still be identified in some areas, allows the identification of the location of these sources and of the related fundus, including a villa and a large tomb with an exedra. The rarity of  his gentilicium and a number of other indicators allow the possible identification of this person with the Faianius mentioned by Tacitus (Annales 1.73.1–2), accused of maiestas in the first year of the reign of Tiberius.

SPECTATORS AND SPECTATOR COMFORT IN ROMAN ENTERTAINMENT BUILDINGS: A STUDY IN FUNCTIONAL DESIGN (pp. 99–130)
Peter Rose
Roman entertainment buildings formed an integral part of Roman society and its way of expressing a social hierarchy. Not only were the spectator’s seating positions determined by an extensive set of legal regulations, but their approach to and further circulation within the buildings were controlled by their social position. Previous research on Roman entertainment buildings has been concentrated primarily on the individual building as an architectural type or on their nature and function within Roman society. Not many scholars have devoted much of their attention to the thousands of spectators who actually used these entertainment buildings; or to the provisions taken to ensure a safe and efficient environment for the massive movement and seating of people. These aspects all would have influenced greatly the functional needs and design of entertainment buildings. The object of this article is therefore to approach these questions by studying the functional design of entertainment buildings from a spectator’s point of view. The emphasis will be on the spectators and their comforts, in order to illustrate how this would have affected the buildings in question. This will be done partly through a comparison of three Roman entertainment buildings — the Theatre of Marcellus, the Circus Maximus and the Colosseum — with the design of modern stadia.

THE VIA LATINA, VIA LABICANA AND THE LOCATION OF AD PICTAS (pp. 131–55)
A.G. Thein
The location of Ad Pictas has been the subject of disagreement among topographers of the Roman Campagna for the past three centuries. In general it is placed several miles west of Artena, at Fontanile delle Macere. This article places Ad Pictas at Colle Tre Are di Valmontone, near Labico, and proposes a solution to a closely-related puzzle — the junction of the Via Latina and Via Labicana, which the sources variously place at Ad Pictas, Ad Bivium and Compitum Anagninum. Originally, the roads met at Ad Pictas, as stated by Strabo. This is confirmed by the Antonine Itinerary, despite the explicit statement that the roads met at Compitum. The Via Latina was subsequently diverted south, via Fontanile delle Macere, and Ad Bivium emerged as the new junction, as shown by the Peutinger Table. The southern route of the Latina emerged in the third century ad and followed a series of existing roads laid down in the Middle Republic through the centuriated area north of Civita di Artena. The change is best attributed to consumer choice — the new route was favoured by the travelling public who frequented the roadside establishments concentrated around Ad Bivium and the nearby Colle Maiorana.

CHARLEMAGNE’S BLACK MARBLE: THE ORIGIN OF THE EPITAPH OF POPE HADRIAN (pp. 157–90)
Joanna Story, Judith Bunbury, Anna Candida Felici, Gabriele Fronterotta, Mario Piacentini, Chiara Nicolais, Daria Scacciatelli, Sebastiano Sciuti, Margherita Vendittelli
This paper presents new evidence that identifies the source of the black marble of the Epitaph of Pope Hadrian I, which is preserved today in the portico of Saint Peter’s in the Vatican. The Epitaph was commissioned by Charlemagne after Hadrian’s death on 26 December 795 and is the most outstanding extant example of Carolingian epigraphy. It is a masterpiece of the Carolingian Renaissance. This paper demonstrates through palaeontological, petrological and geochemical analysis that the stone for the Epitaph was quarried close to the river Meuse, near Namur, in Belgium, in an area that was within the familial estates of the Carolingian family. Furthermore, it is argued that the black stone was chosen in conscious imitation of classical expressions of imperial resources, and that in conjunction with the outstanding quality of the epigraphy and the poetic text, the choice of marble can be interpreted as a statement of cultural inheritance and imperial ambition on the part of its patron, who was crowned as Emperor in Rome at Christmas 800, in sight of the inscription, five years after Hadrian’s death.

HYDRAULIC INFRASTRUCTURE AND URBANISM IN EARLY MODERN ROME (pp. 191–222)
Katherine Wentworth Rinne
Between 1570 and the 1620s Rome was transformed from an essentially medieval city into a baroque one.  During this time popes, cardinals, and other influential citizens restored ancient aqueducts and built new fountains with the intent of using water infrastructure as a tool to return Rome to its antique grandeur, solidify papal prestige, shift existing settlement patterns, stimulate economic development, and improve public health.  Three gravity-flow aqueducts were built to serve Rome: the Acqua Vergine (1562–70), Acqua Felice (1585–7), and Acqua Paola (1607–12).  After a thousand years of finite resources, Rome was awash with water, and by 1625 there were over 80 new public fountains.  In this article I shall discuss these fountains in order to demonstrate how urban development was optimized in areas where water could be delivered. It will be demonstrated that the fountains were far more than urban ornaments, but were actually the most visually prominent features of a new, although largely hidden, physical order, built upon an integrated water infrastructure system that included aqueducts, conduits, distribution tanks and sewers, all of which are discussed in this paper.  This order existed at the scale of the neighbourhood and of the city, as water infrastructure provided an armature to organize, and effectively control, public space, perhaps for the first time since antiquity.

DURANTE ALBERTI, THE MARTYRS’ PICTURE AND THE VENERABLE ENGLISH COLLEGE, ROME (pp. 223–63)
Carol M. Richardson
The Martyrs’ Picture in the Venerable English College, Rome, was painted in 1581 by Durante Alberti at a seminal juncture in the history of the institution. In 1579 what had been the medieval hospice for English and Welsh pilgrims became the English College, run by the Jesuits, for preparing men for the priesthood to send them back to Elizabeth I’s England at the height of Catholic suppression. An important part of one of a number of decorative programmes associated with the Jesuits in the 1580s under Gregory XIII (1572-85), the painting has been overshadowed by the explicit frescoes of martyrdoms by Niccolò Circignani (‘Il Pomarancio’), added to the church shortly afterwards, and the prints by Giovanni Battista de’ Cavalieri that record them. This article seeks to reposition the altarpiece at the centre of both the original decorative cycle and of the remarkable events during the troubled transition of the institution from home for exiled clerics to a training ground for militant priests willing to return to England and face martyrdom.

EXCAVATION REPORT: HEAD OF AN ATHLETE FROM FALERII NOVI (pp. 265–72)
Sophy Downes

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Vol. 72 (2004)

PITS AND POLITICS: INTERPRETING COLONIAL FORA IN REPUBLICAN ITALY (pp. 37-67)
Henrik Mouritsen
The paper approaches the relationship between Rome and her Italian colonies during the Republic through an analysis of the colonial fora, concentrating on the series of pits that has been found at Cosa, Alba Fucens, Fregellae and Paestum. The modern interpretations of these structures as part of the practical and ritual setting for the holding of popular assemblies is evaluated critically, and methodological and practical problems in the application of this theory to the archaeological remains are highlighted. The existence of a specific Roman model is questioned, as is the applicability of antiquarian descriptions of ritual enclosures ( templa ) to the colonial structures. The pits seem too heterogeneous to fit into a single explanatory model and probably served a number of different religious and practical purposes.

LESSER URBAN SITES IN THE TIBER VALLEY: BACCANAE, FORUM CASSII AND CASTELLUM AMERINUM (pp. 69-99)
Paul Johnson, Simon Keay and Martin Millett
This paper presents the results of geophysical and topographical surveys at Baccanae, Forum Cassii and Castellum Amerinum, undertaken as part of the Roman Towns in the Middle and Lower Tiber Valley Project. The results provide new information about the nature and extent of the sites, complementing previous excavated evidence. At Baccanae further details of the settlement plan were established. At Forum Cassii the route of the Via Cassia was clarified and new structures, including tombs and a possible amphitheatre, were identified. Finally, at Castellum Amerinum the route of the Via Amerina was discovered together with evidence for further buildings along the Tiber bank. Three brick stamps from this site are also discussed.

INSCRIBED MEANING: THE VILICA AND THE VILLA ECONOMY (pp. 101-24)
Ulrike Roth
The paper sets out to question the role usually associated with the vilica on rural estates in Roman Italy in order to take a fresh look at the villa economy as a whole. Traditionally, the vilica has been seen as the 'wife' of the vilicus , the male farm manager, and her status consequently has been identified as largely associative, depending almost entirely on her personal relationship to a male slave. Modern discussion of the vilica 's economic significance has thus remained rather perfunctory. Through study of epigraphic, legal and literary source material, I will argue instead that the vilica was only rarely the 'wife' of the vilicus , but that both usually had partners from amongst their fellow slaves. Furthermore, I will suggest that the title 'vilica' possessed primarily a professional dimension, and that it is only on recognition of the vilica 's managerial role in her own right that both her economic significance and the full economic potential of the villa economy can be discerned.

CISTERNS, DRAINAGE AND LAVATORIES IN POMPEIAN HOUSES, CASA DEL GRANDUCA (VII.4.56) (pp. 125-66)
Frank Sear
This article outlines the complex chronology of the eastern side of Insula 4, Regio VII and goes on to examine in detail the water system of Casa del Granduca. There is evidence of water channels and a cistern on the site before the house was built in its present form. The first atrium house on the site seems to have utilized this cistern, and when the house was enlarged further cisterns were built. The peristyle cistern is of particular interest because its head is made from a Doric capital that probably belonged to the Samnite colonnade on the south side of the Forum. Other smaller Doric capitals were also found reused in the peristyle, and these may have belonged to the upper order of the same colonnade. In about ad 40 a running water system using lead pipes was installed and a mosaic fountain built, probably the earliest mosaic fountain in Pompeii. The technique of the mosaics and their importance is discussed briefly. The article ends with some observations about the purpose of installing running water systems in Pompeian houses.

WHERE WAS THE NOVA VIA ? (pp. 167-83)
T.P. Wiseman
Henry Hurst and Dora Cirone have inferred the presence of a sixth-century street on approximately the same alignment as the Neronian street called 'Nova Via' by Lanciani. The question is, was it the archaic noua uia , as the title of their article in Papers of the British School at Rome 71 (2003) implies? The author lists the literary evidence for the noua uia , with text, translation and attempted explanation of each passage, dividing the sources into three groups: those that link the noua uia with (1) the Temple of Vesta, (2) the Velabrum , and (3) the Temple of Iuppiter Stator. The purpose of the exercise is not to offer a definitive solution to a notoriously complex and controversial problem, but to establish as clearly as possible what the ancient authors actually say, and thus assess the relative probability of the various hypotheses that have been put forward. The provisional conclusion is that a 'low' line for the noua uia is the most likely, and therefore that archaeological evidence for it is unlikely to be found.

EIGHT FRAGMENTS OF THE MARBLE PLAN OF ROME SHEDDING NEW LIGHT ON THE TRANSTIBERIM (pp. 185-202)
Pier Luigi Tucci
For the first time it is possible to identify the ancient topography shown on fragments 138a-f and 574a-b of the Forma Urbis , the marble plan of Septimius Severus. They show a long stretch - until now completely unknown - of the right bank of the Tiber, opposite the Aventine. The buildings are not monumental, but rather they are structures and spaces related to river commerce. They face onto a road, c. 10 m wide, that forms the continuation of the route of the via Campana-Portuensis , already identified on another slab of the Marble Plan. The fragments suggest that in the Severan period the road did not link up to the pons Aemilius , but with another bridge, the last remains of which were demolished at the end of the nineteenth century. It seems that this was the pons Sublicius , the location of which until now has been in doubt.

PORTRAITS, PONTIFFS AND THE CHRISTIANIZATION OF FOURTH-CENTURY ROME (pp. 203-30)
Lucy Grig
This article takes the corpus of figured gold glass from fourth-century Rome as a case-study to examine the development of a Christian material and visual culture in late antiquity. The iconography of the corpus, wide-ranging but with a notable focus on portraiture, clearly shows the development of new Christian imagery. Portraits of Roman martyrs and Roman bishops constitute some of the most popular forms of imagery. These glasses can be related to the contemporary efforts of Pope Damasus to promote Roman bishops and Roman martyrs as well as his own position. We can see the corpus as providing evidence of two striking themes or processes. Firstly, the glasses show the potential lying in the use of material culture by bishops and their allies. Secondly, the corpus allows us to trace the early development of what would crystallize as devotional imagery in the early medieval and Byzantine world.

MEDIEVAL DOMINICAN ARCHITECTURE AT SANTA SABINA IN ROME, c. 1219- c. 1320 ( pp. 231-92)
Joan Barclay Lloyd
| This study considers the fifth-century basilica of Santa Sabina and its adjacent buildings. In particular it analyzes the historical documentation and the architectural remains of Santa Sabina from the years c. 1219- c. 1320, when Saint Dominic and the medieval Order of Friars Preachers took over the buildings. It investigates three things: (1) the terms of Pope Honorius III's donation in 1222 of Santa Sabina to the Dominicans, and the claim that he gave Saint Dominic part of his palace on the Aventine; (2) the significance of a wall built between the friars' choir and the public part of the church, in the context of Dominican architectural practice and legislation; and (3) the nature and extent of the convent buildings at the time of Saint Dominic, and their subsequent development till c. 1320. The last item is based on an architectural survey of the Santa Sabina buildings and an analysis of the masonry employed in them. Dating the masonry within broad periods in the Middle Ages helps to identify the priory buildings that existed when the Dominicans came to Santa Sabina, and show how they extended them.

DANIELE BARBARO AND VITRUVIUS: THE ARCHITECTURAL THEORY OF A RENAISSANCE HUMANIST AND PATRON (pp. 293-329)
Louis Cellauro
The Venetian patrician Daniele Barbaro (1514-70), collector of works of art, books and mathematical instruments, was a prominent patron of the arts and sciences in sixteenth-century Venice. His most sumptuous and significant publication was his translation of and commentary on Vitruvius's De Architectura Libri Decem . The purpose of this paper is to offer an analysis of Daniele Barbaro's architectural theory as expounded in his commentaries, and to assess its relationship to Vitruvius in the context of the Renaissance. I focus on theoretical issues relevant to architectural practice, including Barbaro's attitude towards Vitruvius, his theory of the progress of classical architecture, the relationship in his theory between rhetoric and architecture, his views on the role of harmonic proportions in architectural design, and those on the six Vitruvian concepts of architectural design. Barbaro's main contribution to the Renaisssance understanding of Vitruvius lies in his emphasis on the flexibility with which he believed Vitruvius's 'rules' should be understood, and in the importance of optical corrections for architectural design in the theory of the ancient author.

THE 5TH EARL OF EXETER AS GRAND TOURIST AND COLLECTOR (pp. 331-56)
Hugh Brigstocke
This article investigates and documents the Italian travel and picture collecting of John Cecil of Burghley House (1648-1700) who, after succeeding to the title of 5th Earl of Exeter in 1678, made an extensive series of Grand Tours of Italy in 1679-81,1683-4 and 1699-1700, before dying near Paris in 1700 on his way home. During these travels, which extended the whole length of the Italian peninsula from Turin to Naples, he developed a remarkable appetite, without parallel in his day, for the acquisition of contemporary baroque paintings, as an extension of his ambition to refurbish Burghley House, originally built 1555-87. Exeter's artistic taste, which embraced artists such as Carlo Dolci and Benedetto Gennari, as well as Calandrucci, Chiari, Gaulli, Giordano, Maratti, Preti, Recco, Ruoppolo and Trevisani, reflects in many respects that of the court of King Charles II. He also employed Antonio Verrio, who had worked for King Charles at Windsor, to decorate the state rooms at Burghley, including the Heaven Room and the Hell Staircase. He remained loyal to the Stuart cause throughout his life, voted against the transfer of power to William and Mary in all Parliamentary divisions, and refused to act as Hereditary Grand Almoner at their Coronation; and having also refused to take the Oath of Allegiance never again sat in the House of Lords after 13 February 1689. Dissatisfaction with the Protestant regime clearly accounts for the Exeters' final visit to Rome, with their two younger sons, for the Pope's Jubilee in 1699-1700.

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Vol. 71 (2003)

PREHISTORIC CHERT EXPLOITATION IN THE VALLE DEL CESOLONE (MACERATA): A PRELIMINARY PROJECT REPORT (pp. 1-15)
Robin Skeates
This paper describes the results of a project, directed by the author between 1992 and 1995, designed to investigate the nature of prehistoric chert procurement, tool production and exchange activities practised at and around a major chert source situated at the head of the Cesolone valley near Serrapetrona (Macerata). The project began by analysing the published results of archaeological fieldwork and surviving museum collections of prehistoric artefacts made along the valley during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It then continued with three seasons of field-survey work. These confirmed Gnoli’s original interpretation of the Torre Beregna site as a chert procurement and artefact production site, with an emphasis on the production and export of large blades, broadly dating to the Copper and Bronze Ages. They also provided new details about core reduction sequences employed at the source, and identified differences in later prehistoric chert artefact production and consumption along the valley.

EXCAVATIONS OF THE PRE-NERONIAN NOVA VIA, ROME (pp. 17-84)
Henry Hurst and Dora Cirone
An excavation on behalf of the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma, in connection with the programme of conservation of the Domus Tiberiana, provided evidence that the street known as the Via Nova probably dated back to the sixth century BC. In the context of current discussions of the topography of Rome, this street may be identified as the nova via of ancient texts. The presumed creation of the street was preceded by remains interpreted as belonging to a possible agger and ditch of the early Palatine fortifications; this hypothesis also draws from, and reinterprets, the results of geological borings made in the vicinity. Further evidence was also revealed about the later sequence of the Via Nova and frontage buildings in the area of the excavation; and preliminary results of study in the upper part of the ‘Scalae Graecae’ are also described.

LATE ANTIQUE WATER-MILLS ON THE PALATINE (pp. 85-109)
Andrew Wilson
During the course of excavations directed by Henry Hurst in September 2002 on the north slope of the Palatine Hill in Rome, a late antique floor was discovered, made out of complete and broken millstones. The stones are of a type associated with water-powered grain mills and, together with a similar late pavement uncovered nearby several years ago by Clemens Krause, provide suggestive evidence for the existence of a complex of at least five water-mills, on the north or west slopes of the Palatine, in late antiquity. This water-mill complex may have been connected with the annona, although grain could also have been ground there commercially. The newly-discovered floor is dated by pottery to c. 350–500; the millstones may date from around this period, although the mills from which they came may have been built earlier. A pair of fragmentary early modern millstones lying by the Fontana della Pioggia in the Farnese Gardens on the north slope of the Palatine indicates that the same factors of a steep slope and the availability of water artificially conveyed to the top of the Palatine encouraged the exploitation of the site for water-power also in more recent times.

THE LATE ANTIQUE ‘DOMUS’ ON THE CLIVUS SUBURANUS, THE EARLY HISTORY OF SANTA LUCIA IN SELCI, AND THE CERRONI ALTARPIECE IN GRENOBLE (pp. 111-39)
Fabio Barry
This article considers the church of Santa Lucia in Selci, Rome, and attempts to filter out fact from figment, elucidating the history of the church from its origins until the Cinquecento. In the process, it returns an artefact of extraordinary rarity to its proper home: the (Trecento) altarpiece of Santa Lucia now in the Musée des Beaux-Arts, Grenoble.

THE MONASTIC ECONOMY IN THE PRINCIPALITY OF SALERNO DURING THE ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES (pp. 141-79)
G. A. Loud
This article examines the role of monasteries as landholders in the principality of Salerno in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. It refers in particular to the monastery of the Holy Trinity at Cava, although discussing briefly some other monastic communities and comparing them to the Holy Trinity. The study is based primarily on an analysis of unpublished documents in the archive of Cava, in which some 3,500 charters survive for the twelfth century alone. After a brief discussion of the foundation of monasteries in the principality around 1000 and of the development of the property holding of the Holy Trinity of Cava and of its privileges, granted by the last Lombard princes, by the new Norman dukes and by local aristocrats, the author addresses five main themes. These are: the relationship between the monastery and its tenants (described with various terms, such as homines, censiles, servi and villani); the voluntary submission of free men to the authority of the monastery and their relations with that authority; the importance of manual labour obligations in relation to these tenants; the conditions of and variations in mezzadria contracts; and, finally, the importance of the value relative to the extent of the property of Cava during this period, and particularly in the twelfth century. Importance is placed on the extent to which the development of local custom may have represented an improvement of the existing landholding conditions. The financial transactions of Cava are illustrated with particular reference to the years 1110–19, 1130–49, 1170–74 and 1200–4, and with lists of the purchases, payments and loans of the monastery. The expenditure of Cava, which amounted to, for example, the equivalent of 25,951 tarì in the period 1110–14 and 8,267 tarì in 1170–74, is compared to the more occasional and modest expenditure of Montevergine in the late twelfth century. However, details of how Cava managed its direct monetary income, the majority of which perhaps came from rents and from the sale of surplus income in kind, remain obscure, and is one of many subjects discussed in this paper that require more systematic research of the numerous unpublished documents of the twelfth century in the archive of Cava.

THE CULT OF SAINT MONICA IN QUATTROCENTO ITALY: HER PLACE IN AUGUSTINIAN ICONOGRAPHY, DEVOTION AND LEGEND (pp. 181-206)
Ian Holgate
In April 1430 the physical remains of Saint Monica, the mother of Saint Augustine, were translated from Ostia to Rome. This act marked the saint’s rediscovery and the beginnings of a process of refashioning Monica’s image for fifteenth-century audiences. By the close of the fifteenth century the saint had been provided with a distinct hagiography and iconography of her own and had become the devotional focus for a number of groups throughout Italy and beyond. The study demonstrates the extent to which and the means by which Monica’s cult was brought under the control of the Church as a whole and of the Augustinian Hermit Order in particular. It is argued that Monica was useful both as a protagonist in stories that sought to authenticate the ancient ancestry of the Hermits and as a figurehead by which the order attempted to embrace and direct popular forms of female devotion. The diverse images fashioned for Monica reveal the distance between Monica’s two roles and the potential disagreement that existed between the different factions that invested in the saint.

HUMANISTS IN THE ROMAN FORUM (pp. 207-33)
Frances Muecke
This article presents an unpublished excursus on the Fora from student notes taken at lectures given in c. 1470 by the most influential antiquarian of the later fifteenth century, Giulio Pomponio Leto. The excursus is of interest because it is one of the earliest antiquarian attempts to identify the location of buildings and places in the Forum itself. The article sets the excursus in the context of earlier antiquarian treatises and contemporary and later attempts to locate monuments in the Forum. Detailed analysis identifies the sources and demonstrates a general similarity between the method of the excursus and that of Pomponio Leto, as well as some peculiarly Pomponian identifications. It also shows the importance of humanist commentaries, to date less well studied than the topographical treatises, for the investigation of the growth and dissemination of humanist antiquarianism.

ENGLISH PROPERTIES IN ROME, 1450–1517 (pp. 235-57)
Anthony Majanlahti
Properties belonging to the English hospice in Rome in the period 1460–1517 show a rapid rise in rents beginning in 1490 and increasing up to the Jubilee year of 1500, along with an elaboration of structures and repairs. This dramatic change, often as much as tripling rents from the previous decade, was occasionally countered, however, by reductions in rent and even charitable action on the part of the hospice.

PINTURICCHIO AND THE PILGRIMS: DEVOTION AND THE PAST AT SANTA MARIA DEL POPOLO (pp. 259-85)
Anne Dunlop
This article examines the chapels of Cardinals Domenico della Rovere and Girolamo Basso della Rovere in Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome, a church rebuilt under Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere in the 1470s. The chapels are dated to the early and the mid-1480s respectively, and attributed to the Umbrian artist Pinturicchio, a favourite of the della Rovere curia. In previous discussion of the chapels, much stress has been laid on the artist’s inventive fictive architecture and extensive use of grotesques, but there has been less interest in the devotional scenes set within them. This paper reviews what is known about the della Rovere refashioning of the church, including its importance as a place of pilgrimage, to argue that the modern distinction between the votive images and fictive architecture misrepresents the Quattrocento idea of innovative ‘classical’ painting, where both might come together for Christian needs.

TIVOLI NOT ARICCIA: GASPARD DUGHET’S VIEW OF ‘ARICCIA’ IN THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON (pp. 287-303)
David R. Marshall
This article identifies the principal subject of Dughet’s painting in the National Gallery London, hitherto identified as a View of Ariccia, with the Porta Sant’Angelo at Tivoli. It explores the topography of the site in relation to Dughet’s painting and other representations of the site by Claude Lorrain, Gaspar van Wittel, and Adriaen Honing.

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Vol. 70 (2002)

INTERPRETING EARLY ETRUSCAN STRUCTURES: THE QUESTION OF MURLO (pp. 1-28)
Jean MacIntosh Turfa and Alwin G. Steinmayer Jr
An analysis of the date, size, plan and location of the monumental courtyard building at Poggio Civitate (Murlo, province of Siena) offers evidence for its past function as a ‘commercial’ centre in a pre-monetary and not wholly urbanized region. One of the largest structures of its day (c. 575 BC), characterized by innovative engineering and extravagant ornamentation, the Murlo Upper Building, by offering visibility, a political/economic statement, shelter and security for large numbers of people or goods, was designed as part of a system of trade in large commodities. Its proximity to a mining region (and other raw materials), and its use in the production of assorted luxury goods, as well as the design of a room functioning like the ‘trade room’ of modern European colonial forts, further illustrate a commercial function in an era of increasingly sophisticated foreign contacts and social change.

RECENT RESEARCH ON THE CITY AND TERRITORY OF NEPI (VT) (pp. 29-77)
Francesco di Gennaro, Orlando Cerasuolo, Cecilia Colonna, Ulla Rajala, Simon Stoddart and Nicholas Whitehead
This article reports on the results of work on the city and territory of Nepi (VT). A full account is given of surface finds from Torre Stroppa and Il Pizzo, which date to the Bronze Age. The final excavation report is given of a small excavation near San Tolomeo within the city itself, which uncovered a mosaic of early Imperial date. Two other reports are presented in more preliminary form. The first gives an outline of the stratigraphic sequence of the excavation of an area between the Bishop’s Palace and the Cathedral of Nepi, where a stratigraphy from the seventh century BC until the modern period was uncovered. A more detailed account is given of sealed fifth-/fourth-century deposits within this sequence. A brief preliminary account is given of recent systematic work in the territory of Nepi. In conclusion, a model is presented for the development of the territory and topography of the city of Nepi from the Bronze Age until the late Roman period.

RURAL SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE ARCHAIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE AREA OF POGGIO SOMMAVILLA (SABINA TIBERINA) (pp. 79-98)
Flaminia Verga
This paper presents the results of an historical and topographical survey carried out in the middle Tiber valley, more specifically in the Sabina Tiberina, in the area around Poggio Sommavilla. The survey focused particularly on the area under the present-day administration of the Comune of Stimigliano, with the aim of reconstructing the topographical layout of the Roman landscape. The field survey shed important new light on the nature of the archaic and Roman road network. In particular, as well as the Via Flaminia that runs along the western limits of the study area, another road was identified running in a broadly northeast–southwest direction, which appears to have formed the main trade route that served the area during both the archaic and Roman periods. Furthermore, the study of earlier maps, together with the evidence from the survey, has permitted the identification of a number of ancient ports along the Tiber, whose position was previously unknown. It is interesting to note that the settlement pattern characteristic of the Iron Age, which favoured high plateaux overlooking the Tiber, continued into the archaic period. This appears to have had a significant impact on settlement of the Roman period, in that the earliest attested Roman villas in this area are those situated next to the Tiber. The development of the ‘phenomenon of the villa’ in the area of the Sabina Tiberina from the end of the Republican period (third to second centuries BC) is consistent with the results of studies in other parts of central Italy. The study of the pottery collected from settlements of the archaic period (Colle Rosetta) and the Roman period (San Sebastiano) confirms the importance of the Tiber as a trade route for commercial exchange.

THE SABINENSIS AGER REVISITED: A FIELD SURVEY IN THE SABINA TIBERINA (pp. 99-149)
Helga Di Giuseppe, Marta Sansoni, John Williams and Robert Witcher
This paper presents the results of a small field survey in the Sabina Tiberina, to the southwest of the ancient town of Cures Sabini, north of Rome. The choice of study area and objectives respond to specific research problems identified by the British School at Rome’s Tiber Valley Project. These included an assessment of the apparently marked difference in settlement density on the two banks of the Tiber. An area previously surveyed by Muzzioli was selected with the hope of refining the chronology of known sites and identifying previously unidentified settlement. The research area offered the opportunity to assess a mid-Republican land-division proposed by Muzzioli. The re-survey identified most previously known sites as well as a significant number of new sites. This suggests the lower settlement density of the Sabina may relate to less intensive field-survey techniques. It was also possible to extend significantly the chronology of known sites, into the Sabine and late antique periods.

LATIN INSCRIPTIONS: STUDIES IN MEASUREMENT AND MAKING (pp. 151-76)
R. D. Grasby
This paper forms a continuation and revision of research published in ‘A comparative study of five Latin inscriptions: measurement and making’, Papers of the British School at Rome 64 (1996). The five studies published there revealed many coincidences of design and lettering amongst formal inscriptions of the late first and second centuries AD, and demonstrated that a sophisticated system of measurement ordered every aspect of their construction. The purpose of this second paper, based on inscriptions of Republican and early Imperial times, which also presents the results of a sixth formal study, is to determine whether similar principles of design and letter construction can be identified in this earlier period. It is also an opportunity to advance the theoretical aspects of earlier studies and to demonstrate some processes in the lettering of inscriptions.

GREEK ATHLETICS AS ROMAN SPECTACLE: THE MOSAICS FROM OSTIA AND ROME (pp. 177-203)
Zahra Newby
While the Roman love of spectacles such as gladiatorial combats and chariot racing is well-known, this paper looks at the reception of another type of spectacle at Rome: athletic contests along Greek lines. Through a discussion of the mosaic pavements with athletic scenes from ancient Ostia and Rome, the paper focuses on the range of interpretations such mosaics could invite. Similarities with the depiction of victorious charioteers suggest that Greek-style athletics were represented here as one in a range of public spectacles, like chariot races. Yet the presence of many of these images in bath complexes also raises the possibility of an identificatory viewing of the images, in which the viewer saw an analogy to the very activities in which he himself was involved. By their inclusion of specific details such as prizes and name labels, these mosaics suggest an interest in athletic spectacles throughout Roman society, helping to nuance the picture given by the literary sources and providing us with a specific example of the integration of Greek culture into Roman social life in the high Empire.

THE TEMPLE OF HADRIAN AT CYZICUS AND ROMAN ATTITUDES TO EXCEPTIONAL CONSTRUCTION (pp. 205-30)
Janet DeLaine
Starting from Aelius Aristides’s Panegyric in Cyzicus, the paper explores Roman attitudes to exceptional feats of construction. The framework is provided first by the idea of the Seven Wonders of the world, which suggest that such constructional feats were admired for their great size and their technological sophistication, particularly when exercised on a scale beyond the realm of normal human experience. Such constructions appeared to challenge nature, but concurrently displayed the limits of human ingenuity, and gave status to the patrons for whom these works were created. At the same time, the act of construction was seen as a symbol of civilized existence, and both written and pictorial representations of building are shown to have particular significance. This leads to a discussion of magnificentia and the value of construction for the Roman patron in contributing to the life of the community. The paper concludes with an examination of the moral implications of construction on a large scale, setting this within the broader framework of conflicting Roman ideas about mankind’s relation to Nature, and the ancient debate on the origins of civilization and the idea of human progress.

URBAN PRODUCTION IN THE ROMAN WORLD: THE VIEW FROM NORTH AFRICA (pp. 231-73)
Andrew Wilson
This paper examines the evidence for manufacturing activities in cities of Roman North Africa, and argues that the significance of urban craft production has been greatly underestimated in many discussions of the ancient economy. Because workshops were often fairly small, but may have been numerous and distributed throughout a city, it is often difficult to assess the true scale of urban manufacturing without extensive excavation. Excavation on the scale required is impractical with today’s techniques, although two sites where large-scale clearance excavation was undertaken in the first half of the twentieth century have yielded a picture of numerous workshops: 22 fulling workshops at Timgad and eighteen fish-salting establishments at Sabratha. It is argued that the way forward for research at some sites where conditions allow is through surface survey, to identify the scale of dumps of manufacturing waste, supported by geophysical prospection to identify kilns and furnaces, and selective excavation. Such techniques have been tried with success at Leptiminus, Meninx and Thamusida, identifying evidence of pottery production, metalworking and the manufacture of purple dye from murex shellfish.
The evidence emerging from recent archaeological work suggests that the contribution of urban manufacture to the economies of ancient towns was potentially significant, and the scale of manufacturing at the sites discussed indicates a much more artisanal character to life in these cities than has been appreciated generally. The consumer-city model does not seem wholly appropriate for many Roman cities, and attempts at economic characterization of Roman urbanism usefully could pay more attention to the role of cities in local, regional and long-distance trading networks.

EPIGRAPHY AS SPOLIA — THE REUSE OF INSCRIPTIONS IN EARLY MEDIEVAL BUILDINGS (pp. 275-96)
Robert Coates-Stephens
The paper examines archaeological and textual evidence for the reuse of inscriptions in fortifications, church-paving and standing walls of buildings from the third to the ninth centuries, concentrating on examples from Rome. The phenomenon is set against the wider background of spolia use, and current interpretations of the reuse of building materials are re-examined. The following problems are considered: the extent to which the inscriptions were left in view, and whether or not such visibility was meaningful; the possible significance of the reuse of pagan texts in Christian buildings; and the idea that the reuse of the antique in general signified a means of self-legitimization on the part of patrons. Some conceptual readings are revealed to be contradictory. The reuse of inscriptions during the early medieval period must be seen against the background of a universal reliance upon spolia for building materials. It therefore becomes extremely difficult to prove that the reuse of epigraphy was ever the result of a specific choice on the part of builders and patrons.

A COLLECTION OF INSCRIPTIONS FOR LORENZO DE’ MEDICI. TWO DEDICATORY LETTERS FROM FRA GIOVANNI GIOCONDO: INTRODUCTION, TEXTS AND TRANSLATION (pp. 297-317)
Michael Koortbojian
In 1489, Fra Giovanni Giocondo dedicated two volumes of his collection of ancient inscriptions to Lorenzo de’ Medici. The two dedicatory letters are presented here, together with a translation and an introductory essay that sets these documents in their historical context.

VITRUVIAN PARADIGMS (pp. 319-46)
Georgia Clarke
This article examines the dissemination and knowledge of Vitruvius’s De architectura in fifteenth-century Italy and shows that interest in it increased during the course of the century. This is shown by the number of manuscript copies made from the mid-century onwards, Vitruvian influences on the writing and translation of other architectural treatises, and the printing of De architectura in 1487/8. Such attention was connected with contemporary architectural concerns on the part of patrons, scholars and architects. By the first decades of the sixteenth century, Vitruvius occupied a central position in relation to architectural theory, and a series of editions of the text was produced through the sixteenth century. In some of these, and especially in the 1537 publication on architecture by Sebastiano Serlio, the orders came to be emphasized as the most important constituent of architecture. Vitruvius was accorded great authority. In turn, reference to him was used to justify theories that were as much dependent on sixteenth-century ideas and formulations as on De architectura itself.

SANTA SCOLASTICA: SURVEY AND TRIAL EXCAVATIONS OF A SAMNITE SITE NEAR SAN VINCENZO AL VOLTURNO (pp. 347-57)
Karen Francis, Oliver J. Gilkes, Richard Hodges and David Tyler
As part of a programme of investigating the dependent settlements of the early medieval monastery of San Vincenzo al Volturno, a settlement site on the lower east-facing slopes of Monte Santa Croce was examined. Monte Santa Croce has been identified previously as a Samnite fortified centre and substantial polygonal walls are visible on the summit. Prior field survey had recovered both Samnite and early medieval ceramics, and local oral tradition connected the site with a convent supposedly dedicated to Santa Scholastica. The excavations revealed a series of substantial structures, possibly of fifth- to fourth-century BC date. These may well be connected with a settlement hierarchy of occupation on the mid-slopes of the mountain, around and dependent upon the fortified summit. Further occupation sites are known from a 1993 field survey to the north of the mountain. The early medieval ceramics remain unexplained, and any early medieval occupation site remains to be investigated.

SANTA MARIA IN CIVITA REVISITED (pp. 359-61)
Kim Bowes and Richard Hodges
This note re-examines the archaeology of the ninth-century hilltop site of Santa Maria in Civita, and concludes, on the basis of features now visible as a result of intense farming, that three separate units occupied the site. These were a church and two habitation compounds.

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Vol. 69 (2001)

A CENTURY OF PREHISTORY AND LANDSCAPE STUDIES AT THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ROME (pp. 3-34)
T.W.Potter† and Simon Stoddart
The article investigates the hundred year tradition of prehistoric and landscape studies by the British School at Rome. This century of research covers three main phases: the directorship of Ashby, the directorship of Ward-Perkins and the last three decades of the twentieth century. The first two sections, written principally by Tim Potter before his death, trace the development of the topographical studies of the early decades of the twentieth century into the regional study of the 1960s. The last section sets the work of the British School within the context of recent trends in landscape archaeology: a combination of problem orientation and increased intensity of research. Southeast Etruria is generally considered the main focus of landscape research by the British School, but the article seeks to outline the important work also undertaken elsewhere, most particularly in North Africa, Malta and southern Italy. The test for the future will be to what extent the British tradition of synthesis manages to incorporate these new advances in landscape archaeology.

MEDIEVAL STUDIES AND THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ROME (pp. 35-48)
Chris Wickham
Research into medieval studies was a feature of the British School at Rome from the beginning, with large works on art history (Rushforth) and administrative history (Jamison) published in the first decade of the twentieth century. After that, however, medieval themes were only fairly intermittent until after the Second World War. History was the major focus of work in the 1950s; archaeology began in the 1960s. This latter developed out of the School’s South Etruria Survey, which focused on the Roman period but which raised questions about what happened after; the Santa Cornelia excavations of the early 1960s were among the first major medieval excavations in Italy. David Whitehouse’s work on pottery made accurate datings possible for the first time in the middle of the decade. From these roots developed three decades of intensive work on Italian medieval archaeology, in which British archaeologists, generally linked to the School, have made a major contribution. History and art history have also developed in the most recent decades; John Osborne has been particularly active in developing the study of early medieval Roman visual culture.

EXPLORING GENDER IN PREHISTORIC ITALY (pp. 49-96)
Ruth D. Whitehouse
The significant development of gender studies in archaeology only got under way in the 1990s, and to date they have had little impact in Italian archaeology. This article aims to open up the field of study in a broad way — hence the term ‘exploring’ in the title. I do not claim to offer any definitive interpretation, but instead provide critiques of such relevant works as exist and discuss the potential of particular approaches to gender archaeology in the context of prehistoric Italian datasets. I present a chronological survey of prehistoric and protohistoric Italy, from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Iron Age, discussing types of information that are promising for the study of gender and suggesting possible avenues of enquiry. The hope is that a gender-informed archaeology will produce a richer understanding of past societies in Italy, as elsewhere.

A SITE WITH MID-REPUBLICAN POTTERY IN THE VALLE DEL MIGNONE (FRASSINETA FRANCO Q. 266) (pp. 97-130)
Enrico Angelo Stanco
During field survey in the area of the Monti della Tolfa, carried out by the Gruppo Archeologico Romano between 1975 and 1984, a clandestine excavation was discovered. It yielded a concentration of pottery sherds from the rubbish dump of a small rural settlement of the second quarter of the second century BC. Some of the pottery was of local production, whilst some had been imported. The study of the finds in comparison with published sites dated to between the middle of the third and the end of the second century BC allows this pottery facies to be placed clearly within a quite precise chronological framework. This phase coincides with the construction, or the definitive laying out, of the Via Claudia, within the context of the general territorial restructuring that was taking place in South Etruria and central Italy, undertaken by the Roman state between the end of the Second Punic War and the middle of the second century.

ROME RAVENNA AND THE LAST WESTERN EMPERORS (pp. 97-130)
Andrew Gillett
Ravenna has long been regarded as the capital of the late Roman emperors and of their successors in the West, Odoacer and the Ostrogothic rulers, but the available evidence in fact indicates that Rome was the more important imperial residence of the fifth century. The adoption of Ravenna as an imperial residence is usually attributed to the protection from assault offered by its swamps, and the military weakness of the last emperors. This article tabulates evidence for the residences of the western emperors from 401 to 476, showing that the western imperial court occupied Rome for significant periods, including between 401–408 and 440–449, and that Rome was the court’s primary residence between 450 and 476, the last generation of imperial rule in the West. The later years of the reign of Valentinian III and the rule of Anthemius in particular illustrate the role of Rome as the imperial residence. Contemporary and sixth-century writings support Rome’s importance, but make little reference to the supposed defensive qualities of Ravenna. The emperors’ presence in Rome underscores the centrality of the senatorial aristocracy of Rome to fifth-century western politics.

BURIAL TOPOGRAPHY AND THE POWER OF THE CHURCH IN FIFTH- AND SIXTH-CENTURY ROME (pp. 169-89)
Marios Costambeys
Recent excavations have revealed the extent to which fifth- and sixth-century Romans transgressed the ancient legal prohibition on burial within the city. However, holistic explanations of this change have not been attempted yet. The proliferation of urban burials in the complex urban environment of Rome indicates not only a shift in attitudes to death, but also changes in the management of the dead, and in the city’s topography. City and countryside blended together in this period, forming the kind of landscape that had always been present in the parks or horti scattered throughout the city. This paper focuses first on two burial sites topographically associated both with horti and with two churches, Sant’Eusebio and Santa Bibiana. The history of these churches indicates the variety of ways in which land was controlled and transferred in this period: Sant’Eusebio was a wholly private foundation, while Santa Bibiana was established by the pope, probably on land acquired from the emperor. The burials around them may have had the nebulous status acquired by many of the horti from the late fourth century onwards, subject to the overlapping jurisdictions of aristocrats and the Church. The influence of the latter was keenly felt through the liturgy for the dead that was beginning to take shape in the sixth century. Nevertheless, clerical control over the location of burials remained far from routine in this period, and gravediggers remained outside the ranks of the formal clergy. The evidence suggests that clerical control of burial became more firmly established as and when funerary expenses, including gravediggers’ fees, were paid to churches. This insinuation of the clergy into the rituals of burial and the selection of burial plots was an important episode in the Roman Church’s appropriation of the urban fabric.

A PLACE OF PILGRIMAGE: A PROPOSAL FOR THE ORIGINAL LOCATION OF THE ARCA OF SAINT CERBONE (pp. 191-221)
Diana Norman
The burial and commemoration of saints in late medieval Italy is currently the focus of considerable attention amongst art historians. The Arca of Saint Cerbone, executed in 1324 by the Sienese sculptor, Goro di Gregorio, is an important example of one such tomb shrine. Presently on display in the early fourteenth-century choir of the cathedral of Massa Marittima, until the 1950s the Arca was located beneath the high altar of the cathedral and was widely assumed to have been designed specifically for this location. The present article challenges this commonly held view. Tracing the history of both the tomb shrine and the venerated relics of Saint Cerbone, the article demonstrates that the placing of the Arca below the high altar probably occurred only in the 1480s. Close examination of the Arca itself, together with the fabric of the cathedral and its building history, suggests that originally the Arca was a free-standing monument located in the north aisle of the cathedral. Such a location would have made this impressive tomb shrine easily accessible to pilgrims and devotees of Saint Cerbone and would greatly have facilitated their understanding and appreciation of the Arca’s sophisticated programme of sculpted imagery.

'QUI PERUSII IN ARCHA SAXEA TUMULATUS’: THE SHRINE OF BEATO EGIDIO IN SAN FRANCESCO AL PRATO, PERUGIA (pp. 223-44)
Donal Cooper
The author presents a new reconstruction of the tomb of Beato Egidio (ob. 1262), Saint Francis’s third companion and one of the most revered figures of early Franciscan history. Egidio’s shrine in San Francesco al Prato, Perugia, has acquired great significance in the study of early Franciscan artistic patronage by virtue of its appropriation of an early Christian sarcophagus, and the indisputable influence of this ‘Arca’ on the double-sided altarpiece painted for the church by the Maestro di San Francesco c. 1272. Scholars have hitherto placed Egidio’s sarcophagus below the high altar of San Francesco al Prato to form a visual ensemble with the retable, but a range of unpublished sources suggests that the Beato was instead buried in the south transept. According to this reconstruction, his tomb should be placed in a tradition of elevated tomb chests, exemplified by the thirteenth-century shrine of Saint Dominic in Bologna. In terms of access and devotional practice, the raised tomb chest was functionally more satisfactory than the type of high altar arrangement employed for Francis’s own tomb. Egidio’s shrine therefore demonstrates how, where necessary, the Friars Minor could reject the model provided by their Mother Church at Assisi.

A RENAISSANCE BISHOP AND HIS BOOKS: A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE MANUSCRIPT COLLECTION OF PIETRO DEL MONTE (c. 1400–57) (pp. 245-72)
David Rundle
Pietro del Monte, bishop of Brescia (1442–57), was identified by Vespasiano da Bisticci as an avid bibliophile. This article provides a first attempt to reconstruct del Monte’s library, identifying 66 of his manuscripts and discussing his book-collecting habits. In particular, del Monte’s own activities as a frequent and intelligent scribe are studied. The article opens by outlining the posthumous dispersal of del Monte’s manuscripts, with books of his passing through the hands of men like Cardinal Juan de Torquemada, Domenico Domenichi (del Monte’s successor as bishop of Brescia) and Hernando Colon. However, the majority of del Monte’s manuscripts passed into the collection of one man, Pietro Barbo, the future Paul II. Accordingly, the identification of the size and significance of del Monte’s library can also shed new light on the supposed humanist interests of that pope.

ARTISTIC PATRONAGE AT THE CLARISSAN CONVENT OF SAN COSIMATO IN TRASTEVERE, 1400–1600 (pp. 273-97)
Kate Lowe
This article analyses the artistic heritage of the Clarissan convent of San Cosimato in Rome between 1400 and 1600. The nuns acted as grateful recipients rather than as active commissioners in the acquisition of a heterogeneous ‘collection’ of art and artefacts. Patronage seems to have been forthcoming, once again, from Franciscan and papal sources, although there are many unanswered questions about commissions, and it is difficult to make secure judgements about the nature of the patrons. Two (and maybe three) of the six works of art and artefacts under discussion do not appear to have been intended for San Cosimato and ended up there by chance or accident. Late fifteenth-century frescoes of Saints Cosmas, Damian and Sebastian (that had been overlooked previously) are one of the works of art discussed.

FRONTINUS, POPE PAUL V AND THE AQUA ALSIETINA/TRAIANA CONFUSION (pp. 299-315)
Christer Bruun
The inscription on the Acqua Paola fountain on the Janiculum in Rome contains a significant mistake. It claims that Pope Paul V restored Augustus’s Aqua Alsietina aqueduct, but in reality his engineers made use of the Aqua Traiana when they improved the city’s water supply c. 1610. This error is not a mere curiosity. The papal administration knew about the Aqua Alsietina on the right side of the Tiber from Sextus Iulius Frontinus’s treatise De aquae ductu urbis Romae, but were unaware that the Romans had ever built another aqueduct there, because the Aqua Traiana is not mentioned by Frontinus. This paper argues that Frontinus (who died c. 100 AD) had achieved an almost canonical status among hydraulic engineers and water administrators in the renaissance and baroque ages (as had Vitruvius among architects). The modern ‘discovery’ of the Aqua Traiana did not come about until Raffaele Fabretti in 1680, who used ancient sources that would have been available also to the chancery of Paul V, had they wished to look further than to Frontinus. It took a further 150 years before Fabretti’s conclusion became general knowledge. This paper also, for the first time, surveys all the ancient and medieval evidence mentioning the Aqua Traiana by name.

THE APSE MOSAIC OF SAN TEODORO IN ROME: AN ASSESSMENT OF ITS HISTORY AND RESTORATION BASED ON UNPUBLISHED DRAWINGS AND DOCUMENTS (pp. 317-51)
Claudia Bolgia
The apse mosaic of San Teodoro presents numerous complicated problems. It has been heavily altered over the centuries, and the extent of these alterations has seriously impeded scholarly study. Comparison of the known extant antiquarian drawings, together with important unpublished archival documents, permits the reconstruction of its conservation history. This is considerably more complex than had been thought previously. The identification of at least four extensive, and often clumsy, restoration campaigns produces a new and precise definition of the parts of the original mosaic that survive. These manifest a level of quality scarcely imaginable earlier, and allow new technical and stylistic comparisons to be made in order to verify the commonly accepted chronology. The new documentation yields important information about the apse mosaic itself, and throws light on the history of Roman restoration workshops, mosaic-workers, materials and setting techniques.

THE LURE OF THE ANTIQUE: NATIONALISM, POLITICS AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN BRITISH MALTA (1880–1964) (pp. 353-84)
Nicholas C. Vella and Oliver Gilkes
In recent years there has been a marked interest in the socio-political implications of archaeological practice. This study reviews the development of archaeological traditions in Malta in order to explore whether social and political groups appropriated antique objects and archaeological sites so as to claim for themselves a distinctive identity. In this paper, the authors opt to concentrate on the period that followed the announcement, in 1880, of a series of reforms that regulated public affairs, which made British colonial rule in Malta appear more intrusive and authoritarian. An appreciation of the antique that can be termed archaeological was born at this time, maturing into an urge to preserve the vestiges of a country’s history, through the enactment of laws, and patriotic and nationalist fervour. Archaeological activities in Malta by people like A.A. Caruana, Albert Mayr, Themistocles Zammit, Thomas Ashby and Luigi Masia Ugolini, are assessed within this context. The authors argue that against the background of a slow understanding of the antiquity of the human race, and the recognition of Malta’s prehistoric past, there arose an urge amongst politicians of a Crown colony to appropriate the past as a precedent for the present and future.

SAN VINCENZO AL VOLTURNO — EXCAVATIONS 1996–7 (pp. 385-92)
Oliver Gilkes and Matthew Moran
In two short seasons in 1996 and 1997, survey and excavation were made of a site on the east bank of the river Volturno, opposite the well-known excavations of the early medieval monastery of San Vincenzo. The motive for this intervention was to re-examine the hypotheses of the 1980s field survey, in the light of rescue work and incidental findings in this area since 1990. In particular, questions were raised regarding the nature, extent and topography of settlement in this area from the Samnite period to the sixth century AD. Remains of Samnite–Republican structures (earth-bonded rubble walls) were identified, the first evidence of Samnite-period settlement at the site. This building is succeded by a small villa(?) in the first century AD, which in turn is redeveloped for a larger (courtyard?) villa in the mid-third century. The latter structure is extensively rebuilt from c. AD 350; the buildings are demolished (or collapse) in a late fourth-/early fifth-century phase, when settlement transferred to the west bank of the Volturno. Evidence of reuse of the site in the eighth and ninth centuries was found in the form of debris from pottery and glass production — evidence associated with an extra-mural community of early medieval lay artisans.

MAPPING ROME: URBAN CHANGE IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF SANTA CATERINA DELLA ROTA (pp. 393-5)
Anthony Majanlahti
The area of Rome around Piazza Santa Caterina della Rota offers a rich and varied series of archives for the study of the neighbourhood. The archives of the Venerable English College show evidence of the English presence and English ownership of property in the neighbourhood, and also show traces of a decline in the English community in Rome in the two decades prior to Henry VIII’s break with the Catholic church. Though the English hospice continued to function, its local importance changed from that of an English centre to that of a major local landlord.

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Vol. 68 (2000)

FALERII NOVI: A NEW SURVEY OF THE WALLED AREA (pp. 1–93)
Simon Keay, Martin Millett, Sarah Poppy, Julia Robinson, Jeremy Taylor and Nicola Terrenato
The results of a survey of the whole of the interior of the Roman town of Falerii Novi are presented, together with those from a small area outside the walls to the north. The methods employed combined topographic survey and field walking with extensive use of a fluxgate gradiometer. The results provide a detailed new plan of the city. The paper presents this plan and provides a detailed description of the structures revealed, including a substantial forum, a theatre and porticus, a series of temples, and a variety of private houses. A preliminary discussion considers these buildings in context, as well as considering the evidence the survey has provided for the development of the city’s topography and defences.

TWO SOUTH PICENE INSCRIPTIONS REREAD — CH.2 AND AP.4 (pp. 95-109)
Jane Stuart-Smith
The small group of early ‘South Picene’ inscriptions, mostly from eastern and central Italy, are an important, yet difficult, source for those working on the history of the peoples of central pre-Roman Italy. The texts, while for the most part obscure, appear to contain references to ethnics and social structures recognized from the historical period. As for any historical enterprise that depends on inscriptional sources, it is essential that textual interpretation be carried out from the most reliable readings possible. Marinetti’s definitive edition, Le iscrizioni sudpicene published in 1985, established careful annotated readings for each text, through autopsy in most cases. However, at the time of researching her book, Marinetti was unable to see the inscriptions CH.2, AP.4 and AP.6. In autumn 1992, these three inscriptions were checked. This paper presents new readings for inscriptions CH.2 and AP.4, a bronze bracelet and stone stele respectively. In both cases the actual texts are slightly different from Marinetti’s published text. Both readings result in the addition of new words to our current inventory for South Picene.

ESTIMATING THE AGRICULTURAL BASE OF GREEK SICILY (pp. 111–48)
Franco De Angelis
The study of ancient Greek agriculture has increased steadily in recent decades; yet in Sicily, an island famed in antiquity for its agricultural products and capacity, interest has been limited. Part of the reason for this lack of interest is the structure of academic disciplines, which traditionally divide researchers into two distinct groups: historians who have focused primarily on the patchy written sources, and archaeologists who have concentrated mainly on art history and on confirming the veracity of written sources. Numerous crucial questions and potentially fruitful areas for inquiry, such as the natural environment, land use and settlement patterns (all of which subjects fall under the umbrella of human or historical geography), get lost between these two approaches. This article is a first step in studying such questions, in response to Nenci’s recent plea for work on what he calls ‘Sicilia frumentaria’. This study aims to estimate the dimensions of Greek Sicily’s agricultural base. Part one discusses sources and methodology. Part two examines climate and attempts to establish the approximate size and nature of the territories exploited by the island’s eleven main city-states, and to quantify the agricultural land available to them and the upper-limits of sustainable population such resources could have supported if pushed to their full potential. Results strongly reinforce the view that Greek Sicily’s agricultural base was blessed with great potential, and that the island may have been able in theory to support a population around two times greater than Beloch believed, as Holm had already concluded.

FROM THE CULTURE OF SPOLIA TO THE CULT OF RELICS: THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE AND THE GENESIS OF LATE ANTIQUE FORMS (pp. 149–84)
Jaś Elsner
This paper seeks to examine the programme of the Arch of Constantine, and in particular its reuse of spolia from earlier buildings, in the light of what can be reconstructed of Constantine’s later monumental projects in Constantinople. The argument invokes the spoliation of classical statues (used to decorate the new city’s public spaces) and of apostolic relics, which were employed to fill the tombs placed alongside that of Constantine in the Mausoleum of the Holy Apostles either in the emperor’s lifetime or that of his son, Constantius, as well as the use of earlier poetry in the typical poetic forms of the fourth century (such as the Cento). The Arch of Constantine, it is argued, emerges as a key monument in the genesis of a new Constantinian aesthetic whereby the old is incorporated into the modern and hence inevitably transformed.

BORGO SAN MARTINO: AN EARLY MEDIEVAL PILGRIMAGE STATION ON THE VIA FRANCIGENA NEAR SUTRI (pp. 185–200)
Michael Matheus
Documentary research suggests the existence of an early medieval pilgrimage station on the Via Cassia south of Sutri, in the vicinity of the Fontanile San Martino. This stretch of the Cassia formed a branch of the Via Francigena as reported in Odo of Cluny’s Life of Gerald of Aurillac, and the pilgrimage station, Borgo San Martino, was one of the final stops for pilgrims before Rome. An archaeological survey of the area attempted to locate the site of the Borgo San Martino and suggested that it may have utilized the remains of a substantial Roman villa at Prati San Martino (see paper by Gilkes, Martin and Matheus in this volume).

ENGENDERING ITALIAN RENAISSANCE ART — A BIBLIOGRAPHIC REVIEW (pp. 201–16)
Evelyn Welch
This essay provides an overview of earlier approaches to women and the art of Renaissance Italy, and reviews recent developments in feminist scholarship and gender studies. While historians have used new methods and questions to explore productively women’s social and economic roles, Renaissance art historians have been more reticent. Only recently have new books and articles on women as painters, patrons and representations appeared. But such publications disguise the wider lack of engagement with gender issues in the field as a whole. The essay illustrates the current diversity of art historical approaches and argues that gender is a crucial concept for Renaissance studies if the topic is to retain its vitality for the 21st century.

FRANCISCAN AND PAPAL PATRONAGE AT THE CLARISSAN CONVENT OF SAN COSIMATO IN TRASTEVERE, 1440–1560 (pp. 217–39)
Kate Lowe
This article examines the gendered aspect of Franciscan and papal patronage at the Clarissan convent of San Cosimato in Rome during the Renaissance. The nuns were cast as needy dependants, and the various male agents of the church formulated policies of patronage for them. A crucial source is the convent chronicle written by Suor Orsola Formicini at the end of the sixteenth century. San Cosimato was firmly ensconced in a complex network of Franciscan connections, ranging from individuals to institutions, all of whom exercised patronage at some level. Building and financial patronage of the convent by Pope Sixtus IV (who was himself a Franciscan) and by Pope Alexander VI is analysed in detail. The phenomenon of patronage by two female relatives of these popes, Franchetta della Rovere and Vannozza Catanei, is also explored.

CARLO BORROMEO’S INSTRUCTIONES FABRICAE ET SUPELLECTILIS ECCLESIASTICAE AND ITS ORIGINS IN THE ROME OF HIS TIME (pp. 241–67)
Robert Sénécal
The author traces the origins of Carlo Borromeo’s prescriptions for church buildings in his Instructiones in the early Christian and contemporary architecture of Rome. Borromeo’s early career in Rome is outlined. Possible influences on his architectural education from his activities in the city and from the personalities he encountered are considered. Before examining Borromeo’s text, a brief picture of Rome in the prelate’s day is outlined, noting the various changes made to the ancient basilicas of the city since the sixteenth century, and the developments in church building in the years immediately preceding his visit and beyond. The prescriptions in Borromeo’s Instructiones are discussed individually and suggestions are made as to how and why the prelate arrived at these solutions. In conclusion, it is shown that besides being very pragmatic and having both new churches and the renovation of existing buildings in mind, Borromeo was greatly influenced by the liturgical developments of his time and ,his text reflects this as well as the explicit deference to ancient practice.

THE EXCAVATION OF THE VILLA PIGNETO SACCHETTI (pp. 269–320)
P. Perkins and S. Schafer
The remains of the Villa Pigneto Sacchetti, designed by Pietro da Cortona, were located and partially excavated in 1992. The excavation revealed that the Casino survived to just above foundation level and that the innermost parts of the nymphaeum and grotto also survived. The excavated remains enabled a reassessment of the accuracy of eighteenth-century plans. Two phases of development were observed — first a small fountain, and second a larger villa with nymphaeum and grotto. The villa was found to be an original design and not a refurbishment of an existing building, as previously thought. Analysis of the remains and surviving documents enable a reassessment of the dating of the construction of the first phase to mid 1637 and the second phase to 1638 to at least 1644. Finds were few, but a series of plant pots bearing papal heraldic devices was identified.

THE ETRUSCAN SANCTUARY AT CERVETERI, SANT’ANTONIO: PRELIMINARY REPORT OF EXCAVATIONS 1995–8 (pp. 321–36)
Vedia E. Izzet
As part of a large collaborative project organized by the Consiglio Nazionale delle Richerche and the Soprintendenza Archeologica per l’Etruria Meridionale, a small British team has been involved in the excavation of part of the sanctuary site at Sant’Antonio, Cerveteri (1995–8). The primary concern of the team was palaeobotanical analysis. The report provides a preliminary stratigraphic framework and presents the analysis of the botanical remains from one area of the site.

RURAL SETTLEMENT IN HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN SICILY: EXCAVATIONS AT CAMPANAIO (AG), 1994 -– 8 (pp. 337–70)
R.J.A. Wilson
Excavations at the 3-ha rural settlement of Campanaio have revealed seven principal phases from c. 200 BC to early medieval times. A complex of Hellenistic buildings in three successive phases had dry-stone walls, earth floors and mud-brick superstructures. A rubbish dump alongside yielded evidence for contact with Cyrenaica, Greece and north Africa. Industrial activity of c. 150 BC is attested by a tile-kiln and cisterns, one with an overflow pipe composed of reused Punic amphorae. A bigger tile-kiln was added c. 125 BC. Scarce early imperial occupation was followed by renewed activity c. AD 375, which saw the construction of a warehouse (with sixteen amphorae), an olive-oil separation-vat, a lime kiln and other new buildings. In this phase are attested iron-working, possible leather production (a cess-pit) and the manufacture of tiles, mortaria and Keay 52 amphorae (wasters were dumped c. AD 400 in the disused lime kiln). Violent destruction c. AD 460 was possibly the consequence of Vandal attack. Arabo-Norman settlement is suggested by three human inhumations on their sides, displaying evidence for malnutrition, a tumour, chronic toothache, arthritis and thalassaemia.

EXCAVATIONS AND SURVEY AT PRATI SAN MARTINO, SUTRI (pp. 371–80)
Oliver Gilkes, Sally Martin and Michael Matheus
Documentary research suggested the existence of an early medieval pilgrimage station on the Via Cassia south of Sutri in the vicinity of the Fontanile San Martino (see paper by Matheus in this volume). This stretch of the Cassia formed a branch of the Via Francigena as reported in Odo of Cluny’s Life of Gerald of Aurillac, and the pilgrimage station, Borgo San Martino, was one of the final stops for pilgrims before Rome. An archaeological survey of the area attempted to locate the site of the Borgo San Martino and suggested that it may have utilized the remains of a substantial Roman villa at Prati San Martino. Two seasons of excavations revealed that the site had been badly damaged by ploughing. No positive evidence that the site had been occupied in the early Middle Ages was found, although a classical sequence spanning the early empire to late antiquity was investigated.

A NEW INTERPRETATION OF THE NINTH-CENTURY HILLTOP (COLLE DELLA TORRE) AT SAN VINCENZO AL VOLTURNO (pp. 381–5)
Richard Hodges and John Mitchell
Fuller clearance of the hilltop of Colle della Torre, San Vincenzo al Volturno, in 1998 indicated a radically different arrangement of buildings from that published in R. Hodges (ed.), San Vincenzo al Volturno 2. The 1980–86 Excavations, Part II (London, 1995), 119–21. Part of a monumental building of classical date has been discovered. However, the hilltop underwent radical modification during the period of ninth-century monastic expansion, with two west-facing buildings being constructed. The authors speculate on the identity of these two buildings, in the light of the known dedications of the various churches within the early medieval monastery and the abbots responsible for their construction. It is suggested that one of the two structures should be identified with Abbot Talaricus’s church of the Archangel Michael.